Ellis investigates different types of tasks and the dimensions of tasks, succinctly summarizing research into a construct that mediates between research and teaching. The chapter concludes with a thoughtful discussion of problems still facing the research and implementation of both tasks and task-based language learning TBLT.
In Chapter 8, he considers whether tasks actually result in language learn- ing, drawing upon two very different theoretical perspectives: sociocultural theory and interactionist-cognitive theory.
Ellis synthesizes the main find- ings of the two perspectives into nine points, and concludes that from both perspectives, tasks that get learners to focus on form do assist language de- velopment. Ellis concludes that FFI is effective but facilitates rather than teaches, and that although the effects of FFI are mostly durable, learners may regress in the future.
He looks at research on three major sets of learner factors: cognitive, affective, and motivational. As adjusting in- struction to cater for such individual differences is difficult, Ellis investigates an alternative, learner strategy training.
Finally, he calls for research using rich case studies that explore how individual differences affect classroom interactional and learning processes. Rather than attempting to summarize the comprehensive arguments made in the previous 10 chapters, in the final chapter Ellis considers the key methodological issues in language teaching research that Chaudron raised almost 25 years ago.
Ellis concludes that there have been substantial advances in developing adequate descriptive categories of classroom behav- iours and events, in the design of experimental studies, and in the reporting of statistical studies. However, the measurement of learning still faces issues with reliability and validity. Ellis also argues that although many theoretical constructs and relationships are now better defined and specified, other constructs, such as scaffolding, still need further clarification.
Throughout the book, Ellis eloquently argues that applied research does not solve pedagogical problems; rather, teachers themselves must become familiar with research and decide how to apply it in their teaching practice.
This book provides, in true Ellis fashion, a thorough overview of class- room-based research on how learners build their knowledge of language as a system. A glossary of terms used would be helpful, but the book is system- atically organized and well written, and each chapter concludes with a use- ful summary of the key findings and implications of the studies presented. Before doing any research about classroom language learning and teaching, it would be wise to read this book—it should be on the bookshelf of every language researcher and language teacher.
Reference Chaudron, C. Second language classrooms: Research on teaching and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Language Learning Motivation in Japan. Matthew T. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters, Reviewed by Dominic G. Edsall Ritsumeikan Primary School Learner motivation is one of the inescapable facets of the language class- room, not so much the elephant in the room as part of the very fabric of the room itself.
A few teachers are blessed to have students who are motivated to learn. Teachers are often left without a clear indication of a source from which to choose how they should respond to any lack of motiva- tion. Language Learning Motivation in Japan is a collection of research reports from 25 different researchers who either teach in Japan or have extensive knowledge of Japan. The editors claim the contents will bridge some of the gap between theory and practice. The book takes a situated approach, ac- counting for the highly contextual nature of motivation.
The first chapter opens with a general overview from Ema Ushioda. She also sets the groundwork for understanding the rest of the book and its use of contextu- ally grounded and locally produced insights. Following this opening overview, each chapter pulls at a different thread of motivational theory. The following describes some of the chapters. In Chapter 2, Kimberly A. Noels makes the case for applying self-determination theory and its ideas of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to the Japa- nese EFL classroom.
Apple, Joseph Falout, and Glen Hill address motivation amongst science and engineering students in Japan in the fourth chapter. Although this chapter is dense in its use of acronyms and statistics, it does provide evidence supporting one important application of the L2 Motivational Self System—the use of English-speaking Japanese role models.
The fifth chapter addresses two opposing perspectives of language learn- ing: how one learner sees language learning primarily as engagement in formal studies at the present time and how another learner sees it as a route to obtaining a future vision of himself or herself.
Hideo Hayashi goes on to describe how these two orientations should be in dynamic equilibrium, with students taking a balanced posture combining the two. Thus, he suggests that teachers give large, socially relevant meanings to language study for learners focused on formal studies and help students focused on a vague future to implement more specific steps to achieving those goals. Rieko Nishida demonstrates in Chapter 6 the motivational advantages of project-based learning in elementary school EFL classes.
This, combined with a large amount of positive feedback, is asserted to be key in maintaining a good classroom atmosphere.
Nowlan examine the effect of intercultural contact in L2 motivation. Michael P. Johnson Chapter 11 presents an interesting longitudinal study on EFL learning motivation that reports on changes in motivation at university and the variable impact of different factors, such as the teacher and the learning environment. Students found some factors motivating in their 1st year, but demotivating in their 2nd year. Of particular interest is the evidence that a lack of motivation may be reversed with appropriate action by the teacher in making classes more interesting and varied.
A lot of work has been done in Japan on the topic of demotivation, and in Chapter 12 Keita Kikuchi provides a coherent summary of studies from both inside and outside Japan.
Although this chapter is more of a review of research, it does offer a practical overview of how teacher behavior can result in negative attitudes or issues in the classroom that teachers should try to minimize in an attempt to reduce demotivation. Lake in Chap- ter Addressing this problem from a more positive take on educational psychology, the author examines which attributes can be used to boost L2 learning motivation through practices such as setting individual goals and building a positive student identity.
Lake focusses on the individual, but in Chapter 14, Falout, Yoshifumi Fu- kada, Tim Murphey, and Tetsuya Fukuda take a look at the role of communi- ties of practice and student interpretation of their own identities within an ever-changing classroom community.
In the study, they took an interesting approach by incorporating the students themselves as researchers and giv- ing opportunities for the students to critically reflect on their own progress in developing L2 learning motivation and a sense of identity in their L2.
Bringing the book to a close, Yoshiyuki Nakata gives an overview of why L2 motivation research relates to the day-to-day practicalities of teaching in the Japanese context and why it is important for researchers, teacher educa- tors, and teachers.
He calls on researchers to make L2 motivation research more accessible, on teacher educators to help interpret the research for teachers, and for teachers to try to interpret research findings in relation to their own teaching context.
Although Nakata makes his case well, he falls short of providing an actual framework to bridge the gap between research and teaching, as he acknowledges in his conclusion. It might be criticized in that it is written in a very academic style for an academic audience. Many of the chapters are so dense in statistics and acronyms as to create a barrier for most EFL teachers in Japan.
However, with persistence and selective reading, the average teacher has much to learn from reading this book and the teacher educator even more. I do not doubt that this volume will be a valuable addition to university libraries and the bookshelves of researchers both in Japan and around the world. The L2 motivational self system. Ushioda Eds. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Teaching and researching motivation 2nd ed.
Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. Graham V. Reviewed by Marlen Elliot Harrison Independent Scholar The purpose of this book is to address issues that might face those beginning to explore second language critical pedagogy. What are its elements, main points, primary concepts? How might a language teacher start doing critical pedagogy? Where does it come from? What underpins or supports it?
Where is it going? And are there any dangers I face if I try it? The nine chapters offer a broad overview of critical language teaching in- cluding theory, historical antecedents, administration, and classroom imple- mentation. Although Crookes sets his focus firmly in Asia as an educational and political context, instructors in Japan may find the contents somewhat unrelated to their own realities at first glance. These two concepts— emancipation and oppression—are largely what drive critical pedagogies and Crookes calls on all instructors, regardless of the level or setting, to question their curricula and academic interactions in light of these concepts.
What one first notices is the ease in which Crookes, writing in a number of registers besides typical academic language, both defines and illustrates how language teachers at almost any stage in their careers can more deeply examine their practices. Crookes offers, Critical language pedagogy emerges from the interaction of theories and practices of language teaching that foster language learning, development, and action on the part of students, directed towards improving problematic aspects of their lives as seen from a critical perspective on society.
To be critical is to question the machinations of power. Each chapter offers a wide range of scholarly sources, points for reflection, and discussion questions, making this book ideal for both preservice teach- ers and those who educate them.
However, the concepts and illustrations are also applicable and useful in classrooms with younger learners who may be ready to examine the meaning of their language studies—historically, politically, and socially. Topics covered across the nine chapters include a surprisingly innovative first chapter consisting of voices and dialogues about what has already been done in the field e.
In order to build something of a road map for those new to critical language pedagogies, Crookes, in Chapter 2, moves to an examination of materials and curricula. According to him, these are traditionally underrepresented in critical pedagogy scholarship. In Chapter 3, Crookes introduces and explores what he deems are nine of the key el- ements of critical language pedagogy practice, such as negotiated syllabi, adopting a critical stance e. In Chapter 4, he traces the origins of these elements.
Crookes includes examples not only from the educational context in Asia, his main focus, but also, as a point of compari- son, from Iran as well.
Chapter 7 moves from theory and practice to look at the roles instructors play in the larger institutional and societal settings and how a critical stance may operate outside the classroom. In addition, Crookes discusses various nontraditional educational settings such as adult education, postsecondary institutions, and even the typically faceless interactions in online education.
In Chapter 8, Crookes asks some of the ethical questions about becom- ing a critical pedagogue. Truly, what sets this text apart from the numerous others currently on the market see, e.
Reviews The publisher advocates the book for courses on methods and approach- es in TESOL, but as a self-proclaimed critical pedagogue, I could easily see myself using the text in numerous other contexts such as with intermediate- level proficiency learners of almost any language in any setting as well as in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics courses.
References Fairclough, N. Critical language awareness. Osborn, T. Critical reflection and the foreign language classroom. Annalisa Sannino and Viv Ellis Eds. New York: Routledge, But it is not a book for all of us, although there are several chapters that JALT members may have a special interest in, especially gradu- ate students.
The main idea put forward is that learning and creating are overlapping co-constructing concepts done best collectively. He uses simple diagrams to help readers grasp his meanings in multiple ways. Thus, he is not describing an entity creativity in people but a process that people go through, creation. Of special note to graduate programs and graduate students is Chapter 4 Kai Hakkarainen et al. These students, in their pro- duction, act within the milieu of a strong research community, which provides access to sophisticated academic practices, the appropriation of which assists in reaching at least some peaks of knowledge creation.
Granted they most probably would not change in time for my own PhD, I might get their thoughts rolling so that my grand- children could have better opportunities to do real collaborative research in graduate school and to join academia more quickly. This book looks more at processes of collective creating and learning in groups and how we more often learn-to-create and create-to-learn together.
This is not at all un- related to our language classes where the individual studying and working alone is much more at a disadvantage compared to those in the social group who share, create, learn, and bond together, and use language as a social- creative-learning tool. Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki, Finland: Orienta-Konsultit.
Green, H. Outliers: The story of success. Gruber, H. Darwin on man. New York: Dutton. Activity, consciousness and personality. Vygotsky, L. David Rose and J. Sheffield, UK: Equinox Publishing, Ostensibly targeting an audience of language teachers, researchers, and postgraduate students, it seems that in Japan the book may best serve as an introduc- tion to genre-based literacy pedagogy, given that even now few papers are presented or published domestically on whole texts, multiple literacies, and genre.
The authors take a novel approach by interweaving a prepare-task- elaborate structure throughout the chapters. Shared knowledge between the reader and writer is built in spirals and reviewed later as contrasts in systems. Those new to the genre approach may take a while to adjust to it, but the authors certainly demonstrate the courage of their convictions as well as their formidable expertise, and the flow and pacing of the book render it highly readable. Teachers provide models of what is expected for their students.
They make use of knowledge about language to prompt a discussion. They help students to read, deconstruct, and write a variety of text types to cover those the students will need in their social contexts and produce texts jointly with their students before individual writing construction p.
Chapter 1 outlines a model to integrate literacy teaching with curriculum goals, which may be particularly helpful to those teaching content-based courses. Chapter 2, which describes L1 primary school instruction, is easily transferable to L2 college-age instruction. Genre types are classified, such as the narrative and recount under stories, the report and explanation under factual texts, and the exposition and discussion under arguments p.
Chapter 3 deals with the demands of L1 secondary school education and thus would relate to more advanced learners in our L2 contexts.
The kinds of sophisticated, uncommonsense knowledge demanded of the developing learner are described as classification, cause-and-effect, and evaluation, realised in grammatical metaphor p. The authors also provide instruc- tors with a roadmap of the tasks that students will need to succeed in school p.
Chapter 4 presents both an instructional design for interactions in the classroom, as well as a strategic reading model, more fully realising the aim of an integrated curriculum involving reading and writing.
Here readers will discover detailed, practical examples of how to apply the Reading to Learn model. On the other hand, it examines everyday in- teraction to highlight the relationship between language practice and cultural diversity. Chapter 1 is devoted to the fundamental constructs and theoretical approaches to the role of culture in language classrooms that contribute to guiding the reader toward an understanding of intercultural issues in language teaching and learning.
The author reviews several different ways in which culture is handled in multicul- tural classrooms and offers some strategies to enhance classroom interaction. Chapter 2 is concerned with workplace interactions where several challenging situations occur. These challenges include structured activities such as meetings and less task-oriented types of speech such as small talk and humor.
These strategies are supplemented with engaging ex- amples and case studies to show how workplace interaction is affected by contex- tual factors such as power, social distance, genre of activity, and goals of interaction that blend with cultural expectations and norms. Chapter 3 examines language and cultural issues in two important business ac- tivities, namely advertising and negotiation, in which, according to the author, lan- guage plays an integral part and provides a major link.
Furthermore, it reviews language and communication in other business settings. The case studies provide a valuable tool for the reader to gain a better understanding of the concepts illustrat- ed here. Chapter 4 sets out to explore two special cases of family situations—namely the migrant family and the intercultural family—where cross cultural differences come into play. The chapter provides the reader with an opportu- nity to explore how a family, as a unit of social organization, lives with differences between its members and how they learn to adjust themselves in the process of dis- covering and reconciling differences that emerge through their language and inter- action.
Furthermore, it addresses how people negotiate, stress and minimize differences. Chapter 5 reviews two potential sites of IC, namely study abroad and tourism, in which people socialize with individuals from another culture. In this section Hua presents some of the problems concerning study abroad and tourism.
It would have been more useful, however, for the reader if the author had offered solutions to the issues raised with regard to study abroad and tourism earlier in this chapter.
Additionally, the chapter touches upon how directness and indirectness in conversation are negotiat- ed and achieved in different cultures. Chapter 7 explicates underlying causes of misunderstanding in IC. What makes this section, appropriately, understandable for the reader is the use of case studies that illustrate the principles described in the preceding sections. This chapter should be particularly helpful to students who are doing higher degrees and practitioners who may want to develop project proposals.
Chapter 9 moves beyond practices and strategies of meaning negotiations and aims to explore generic abilities and skills required in intercultural communicative competence models, with particular emphasis on foreign language teaching and learning.
It sheds light on the pervasiveness and distinctiveness of, and evaluates approaches in, intercultural learning. In chapter 10, Hua reviews the Sapir-Whorf theory of language and culture and discusses two versions of it, namely strong and weak.
The author then examines some relevant issues dis- cussed in the preceding chapters in the light of this classic question. Chapter 11 draws upon four dominant approaches to the notion of culture per- tinent to the domain of IC. In addition, it includes implications that these diverse ap- proaches may have for the study of IC.
Chapter 12 initially provides a brief overview of the multiple dimensions of the construct of identity and examines the link between cultural ethnicity and identity.
Furthermore, the annotated further reading seems inappropriately placed and would perhaps have been more at home at the end of each chapter. Multiple discourse analyses of a workplace interaction. Discourse Studies — Received 12 July Language in Society Introducing Linguistics Li Wei ed. Humor, small talk, and the construction of identity and power in workplace instant messaging By Bernie Mak.
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